Curriculum Development

A.      Introduction

Curriculum theory is a prerequisite for developing a curriculum as a discipline. Curriculum theory serves as an intellectual activity to understand the nature of education and teaching experience in internal and existential. Curriculum is an area of vital importance to the professional teacher. It is after all, the very substance of schooling and the raison for teachers in schools. Islam regards curriculum as a tool to educate young people well and help them to open up and develop the willingness, talents, strengths and skills of their manifold and prepare them to exercise the rights and obligations properly, taking self responsibility, family, community, and nation, participate actively to the betterment of society and nation. In addition, the curriculum as well as a tool to create the desired change in the habits, beliefs, attitudes, systems and people's lifestyles.

Muslims as government, educational reformer, or even students see curriculum as core of the educational process and the first way to reach the goal of education.

B.       Discussion

1.    Definition of curriculum

 Curriculum is defined as all the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the educational institution and the experiences learners encounter when the curriculum is implemented. This is includes those activities that educators have devised for learners which are represented in the form of a written document[1]

The most important concept that needs to get an explanation in the theory of curriculum is the concept of curriculum. There are three concepts of the curriculum, the curriculum as the substance, as a system, and as a field of study such as:[2]

•      The curriculum as a substance: A curriculum, viewed man as a plan of learning activities for students at school, or as a set of objectives to be achieved. A curriculum can also refer to a document that contains the formulation of objectives, teaching materials, teaching and learning activities, schedules, and evaluation. A curriculum can also be described as a written document as a result of mutual agreement among the drafters of the curriculum and educational policy holders with the public. A curriculum can also include a specific scope, a school, a district, province, or across the country.

•      The curriculum as a system: Curriculum system is part of the school system, education system, even the public system. A curriculum system includes personnel structure and working procedures how to prepare a curriculum, implement, evaluate, and refine them. A result of a curriculum system is compilation of a curriculum, and functionality of the system is how to maintain the curriculum of the curriculum in order to remain dynamic.

•      The curriculum as a field of study: This is a field of study curriculum experts and educational experts and teaching. Objectives of the curriculum as a field of study is to develop knowledge about curriculum and curriculum system. Those who study the field of curriculum study the basic concepts of the curriculum. Through literature studies and various research activities and experiments, they found the barn things that can enrich and strengthen the field of curriculum studies.

2.    Curriculum Foundations

Ø Philosophical Sources

Philosophy and philosophical assumptions are basic to all curriculum foundations as they are concerned with making sense of what we encounter in our lives[3]. Philosophy have important role in curriculum development. First, philosophy can determine the goal of education. Second, Philosophy can determine content or subject. Third, Philosophy can determine strategy or method to achieve the goal. Fourth, Philosophy can measure the achievement of education[4]. The aim of school is to educate children to become a good man. What is good is essentially determined by the values, ideals or philosophy that embraced the State, as well as teachers, parents, community and even the world. The curriculum must have a close relationship with the philosophy of the nation and the State, especially in determining the man who aspired for goals to be achieved through formal education. For example: In Dutch era, Indonesia use curriculum that is oriented to political interest of dutch. After Indonesia get freedom and use pancasila as basic and philosophy so the curriculum is appropiated into values in pancasila.

Basically, there are three aproach of philosophy that can give influences for curriculum development :[5]

·      Philosophy of Idealism

According to philosophy of idealism human is spiritual and social creature, so the goal of education must be developed in order to formulate character, talent, and good socialization suitable with the nature of human

·      Philosophy of Realism

According to philosophy of realism, human is depend on something that they do, so the goal of education should be formulated to adaptation and social responsibility. Curriculum must be developed comprehensively involve sains, social, or the content of value in the form of subject centered.

·      Philosophy of pragmatism

According to philosophy of pragmatism there is no limitation for the goal of education (lifelong education). The goal of education more emphasize to obtain useful experience for solving problem in individual or social life.  

Ø Sociological Sources

Society and culture exert enormous influences on the formation of the school curriculum o indeed any curriculum. Every society has norms, customs which can not be known and realized no children in the past stated in his personal conduct. Every society has different value that was followed. Each child will be different cultural backgrounds. This difference should be considered in the curriculum. In terms of our republic must keep, so that this principle should not be exceeded dominate causing community-centered curriculum or society-centered curriculum.

Influences of society and culture on curriculum: [6]

·      The societal and cultural influences that affect curriculum developers are evident in both conscious and unconscious ways and their impact is certainly profound

·      Society and culture influence curriculum developers  simply because they are members of a particular society

·      Social and cultural influences on the curriculum which  deserves specific attention  is that of culturally induced bias

Ø Psychological Sources

Curriculum as tool to achieve the goal of education have relationship with learner’s change behaviour. So that to develop curriculum have to use phsicological foundation.

There are two areas of psychology that underlies the development of curriculum:[7]

·      Developmental psychology:  In the developmental psychology studied about the nature of development, phases of development, aspects of development, individual development tasks, as well as other matters related to development of the individual.

·      Psychology of learning:  is the study of individual behavior in the context of learning, examines the nature of learning, learning theories, and various other aspects of individual behavior in learning.

Ø Technology Sources

Curriculum as tool of education must be renewal that must suitable with human development.

    The important point that must be understood related with technology

·      Changing of life style

There are several areas of science and technology that have a profound influence on people's lives either directly or indirectly. These areas are communications, transport, industry and the mechanization of agriculture, and weaponry. Education also had considerable influence of science and technology, long ago, technology has been applied in education, but the technology used is simple just like using Blackboard and chalk, pen and ink, and etc. Following development time, this is used in a modern technology, just like audio, video cassette, overhead projectors, slide film, motion film computer, internet and etc. Thus, there is a close relationship between the curriculum and technology. Due to a very close relationship that the technology became one of the basic curriculums is very important.

3.    Component of Curriculum

Ø Goal

Hummel (1997) describe three kinds that must be considered to achieve the goal of education:[8]

·      Autonomy; gives individuals and groups the maximum awareness, knowledge, and ability so that they can manage their personal and collective life to the greatest possible extent.

·      Equity; enable all citizens to participate in cultural and economic life by coffering them an equal basic education.

·      Survival; permit every nation to transmit and enrich its cultural heritage over the generation but also guide education towards mutual understanding and towards what has become a worldwide realization of common destiny.

Ø Content
       Component program content and structure / material is material that is programmed to achieve the educational goals have been set. Content or material that is usually in the form of material fields study, for example; Mathematics, Indonesian Language, Science, Social Studies, Morals, tasyri, Arabic and others. Areas of study are tailored to the types, levels and pathways existing education and fields of study are usually already included or loaded in the structure of a school curriculum program.

Nana Syaodih Sukamadinata (1997) explores the sequence arrangement of learning materials, namely:

1.      Chronological sequences; arrangement of learning materials that contain a sequence of time.

2.      Causal sequences; composition containing instructional material causality.

3.      Structural sequences; arrangement of learning materials that contain the structure of matter.

4.      Logical and psychological sequence; sequence is a logical arrangement of learning materials at the beginning of the section towards the whole, from the simple to the complex. While the psychological opposite of the whole sequence to the parts, and from simple to complex. According to the logical sequence of learning materials compiled from real to abstract, from the object to the theory, from function to structure, from the issue of how the problem of why.

5.      Spiral sequence; arrangement of learning materials that focus on particular topics or materials that are popular and simple, then developed, deepened and expanded with more complex materials.

6.      Sequence circuit to the rear; in this teaching sequence begins with the final step and retreat backward. Examples of problem-solving of a scientific nature, involves 5 steps as follows: (a) restrictions on the issue, (b) preparation of a hypothesis, (c) data collection, (d) testing the hypothesis, and (e) interpretation of test results.

7.      In teaching, teachers start with step (a) to (d), and learners are asked to make the interpretation of the results (e). On the other chance teacher presents data on other issues of step (a) to (c) and learners are asked to conduct hypothesis testing (d) and so on.

8.      Sequences based on the hierarchy of learning, the learning procedure begins analyzing the objectives to be achieved, then look for a hierarchical sequence of learning materials to achieve a goal or competency. Hierarchy describes the sequence of behaviors that must be mastered early learners, successive straight up to the final behavior.

Ø Strategy

In teaching and learning, an educator or teacher needs to understand the strategy. The strategy should be care about the approach, methods and the teaching tools that may be needed in teaching and learning process. Strategy instruction can be understood as way owned by a teacher in the learning process. Thus, the strategy has a comprehensive meaning that must be understood and intended to apply by an educator to prepare their students from teaching to the evaluation. By using the right strategy, it is expected for results that are obtained in the learning process may be satisfactory for both educators and students. However, the use of precise and accurate strategy is largely determined by the level of competence of educators. Educators recently have started to lead to the two communications Airways in the process of learning and teaching in the classroom.

Ø Evaluation

To see how far the success of the performance of curriculum implementation, evaluation is required. Given the evaluation component is closely related to another component, then the way the assessment or evaluation will determine the objectives of the curriculum, materials or ingredients, as well as teaching and learning process.
In evaluating, usually an educator will evaluate students with the material or materials that have been taught, or at least something to do with who has been taught. It is very important, given the assessment results or results that are owned by students rarely a barometer of the success of the process of teaching in a school and is closely related to future students.
Further, the assessment is very important not only to show the extent to which the level of achievement students, but also a source of input in an effort to repair and update the curriculum. Observation, in the broadest sense, can be done not only by educators, but also the wider community and those who are authorities in education.

4.    Conclusion

Curriculum is defined as all the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the educational institution and the experiences learners encounter when the curriculum is implemented.

The foundation of curriculum include some aspects such as philosopical foundation, pshycological foundation, sociological foundation, and technological foundation that become basic of curriculum.

The componen of curriculum involve the goal, content, strategy, and evaluation that have relationship and can’t be separated each other.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Syaodih, Nana. 1997. Pengembangan Kurikulum Teori dan Praktik. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya

Print, Murray. 1987. Curriculum Development and Design. Australia

Sanjaya, Wina. 2008. Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Prenada  Media Grup

Sukirman, Dadang. Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran. PDF

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[1] Murray Print, Curriculum Development and Design, p. 4

[2] Nana syaodih sukmadinata, Pengembangan Kurikulum Teori dan Praktek, p. 27

[3] Murray Print, Curriculum Development and Design p.53.

[4] Prof. Dr. H. Wina Sanjaya. Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran, p.43

[5] Dadang Sukirman, Kurikulum Pembelajaran, p.15

[6] Murray Print, Curriculum Development and Design p.59

[7] Nana syaodih sukmadinata, Pengembangan Kurikulum Teori dan Praktek, p.

[8] Prof. Dr. H. Wina Sanjaya. Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran, p.43

Psychology of education

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1  Background of Problem

At the heart of Vygotsky’s theory lies the understanding of human cognition and learning as social and cultural rather than individual phenomena. The theories of Vygotsky are central to any serious discussion of children’s learning processes. Vygotsky argued that children do not develop in isolation, rather that learning takes place when the child is interacting with the social environment. It is the responsibility of the teacher to establish an interactive instructional situation in the classroom, where the child is an active learner and the teacher uses their knowledge to guide learning. He explored relationships between language and thought, instruction and development, everyday and academic concept formation, and a host of others.

 Vygotsky wrote in the Soviet Union during the 1920s and the 1930s. However, his work published recently in the Western world in the 1960s. Since then, his writings became very influential. Vygotsky’s research reveals that, even so, heredity is not a sufficient condition and that a contribution from the social environment in the form of a quite specific type of teaching process is also needed.Vygotsky was a Piage’s admirer. Although he agrees with Piaget that cognitive development occurs gradually and is characterized by the style of thinking is different, but Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget's view that children explore the world alone and form a picture of his own reality.

In this paper will be explained more about Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.

1.2  Formulation of Problem

1.    How about Vygotsky’s concepts of cognitive development?

2.    How about current perspectives on Vygotsky’s theory?

3.    How the application of Vygotsky’s theory?

1.3  The Purposes

1.      To know about Vygotsky’s concepts of cognitive development

2.      To know about current perspectives on Vygotsky’s theory

3.      To know the application of Vygotsky’s theory

 CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

2.1    Vygotsky’s Concept of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky believed that the adults in society foster children’s cognitive development in an intentional and somewhat systematic manner. They continually engage children in meaningful and challenging activities and help them perform those activities successfully. Because Vygotsky emphasized the importance of society and culture for promoting cognitive growth, his theory is sometimes referred to as the sociocultural perspective. The following major assumptions provide a summary of this perspective:

a.       Genetic law of development

Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological), and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relations between human individuals. The general genetic law of cultural development introduces the notion of some form of relationship between something which is defined as social and something which is defined as individual. This theory argued that social environment as primer factor to formulate child’s cognitive development.

According Vygotsky function of mental that higher in human being will appear and come from their social life, while the function of  intramental formed through the acquisition and internalization of a person against the social process, and meaning or construction of knowledge will be formed through the internalization process. Firstly, child participated in particular social activity without understand the meaning. Understanding will appear through internalization process, but internalization here is transformative means that give changing and developing[1].

Vygotsky saw change in mental functioning not as the result of a linear process, but rather as the result of quantitative changes leading to qualitative transformations. In these transformations, formerly distinct processes became unified. Vygotsky grounded this approach in the material world, starting his analysis with the changes that occurred when humans began to control and use nature to meet their needs.[2]

b.      Zones of Proximal Development

The zone of proximal development of the child is the distance between his actual development, determined with the help of independently solved tasks, and the level of potential development of the child, determined with the help of tasks solved by the child under the guidance of adults and in cooperation with his more intelligent partners.[3]

The concept of zone of proximal development as the theoretical attempt to understand the operation of contradiction between internal possibilities and external needs that constitutes the driving force of development. The concept of Zone of Proximal Development was created by Vygotsky as a metaphor to assist in explaining the way in which social and participatory learning takes place.

The common conception of the zone of proximal development presupposes an interaction on a task between a more competent person and a less competent person, such that the less competent person becomes independently proficient at what was initially a jointly accomplished task. Within this general conception, three main aspects are often highlighted or emphasized (though not necessarily all three by a single researcher). For the sake of discussion, these three aspects together represent an ideal type that will be called the common interpretation of the zone of proximal development. The first aspect focuses on the idea that a person is able to perform a certain number of tasks alone but in collaboration can perform a greater number of tasks. The second aspect emphasizes how an adult/teacher/more competent person should interact with a child. The third aspect focuses on properties of the learner, including notions of a learner’s potential and/or readiness to learn.[4]

Moll (1990) argued that a close reading of Mind in Society reveals the Development of the ZPD concept from the method of double stimulation that emphasized the child’s active engagement in finding new means to solve problems. Using words to create a specific plan, the child achieves a much broader range of activity, applying as tools not only those objects that lie near at hand, but searching for and preparing such stimuli as can be useful in the solution of the task, and planning future actions. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 26)

The search for a method of studying psychological change, which was arguably Vygotsky’s central concern, was stated as follows: The search for method becomes one of the most important problems of the entire enterprise of understanding the uniquely human forms of psychological activity. In this case the method is simultaneously prerequisite and product, the tool and result of the study. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 65)

c.       Mediation

In Vygotsky’s view, the conceptual isolation of consciousness and behavior that had been initiated by the subjectivists and extended by the behaviorists had led to a fundamental misconceptualization of both consciousness and behavior. To achieve a truly unified psychological science, he insisted that a new system of concepts and theories would have to be developed which would overcome the conceptual isolation of behavior and consciousness that was so fundamental to existing theoretical frameworks. Vygotsky’s explanation of the origin of the higher mental functions included two components. First, he argued that the higher mental functions rely on the mediation of behavior by signs and sign systems, the most important of which is speech. Vygotsky saw signs as a special type of stimuli that are used as “psychological tools,” tools that are “directed towards the mastery or control of behavioral processes.[5]

Vygotsky described psychological tools as devices for mastering mental processes. They were seen as artificial and of social rather than organic or individual origin. He gave the following examples of psychological tools: ‘language; various systems for counting; mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbol systems; works of art; writing; schemes, diagrams, maps and mechanical drawings; all sorts of conventional signs (Vygotsky, 1960/1981, pp. 136–7).

The very idea of mediation carries with it a number of significant implications concerning pedagogic control. In that the concept denies the possibility of total determinism through external forces it is associated with an intellectual baggage which is potentially highly charged, especially in the political context in which these ideas were originally promulgated. In the extract reprinted below it is clear that Vygotsky was arguing that humans master themselves through external symbolic, cultural systems rather than being subjugated by and in them. Vygotsky (1978) discussed a number of examples of early psychological tools such as tying knots. He suggested that when a knot is tied in a handkerchief as a reminder it acts as an external aspect of remembering.

The process of memorizing is reconstructed through the transformation of an external object as a reminder of something. He contrasts the act of memorizing before and after the knot is used as a psychological tool. Vygotsky also argues that the ways in which tools and signs are used vary as function of context and the child’s own development. He refers to the ‘natural history of the sign’ as a way of emphasizing that, in the course of development, the psychological function that may be fulfilled by signs may also develop and change. Thus, speech may have several functions (e.g. labeling and planning). In the early stages of development, Vygotsky suggests that speech may assume an important labeling function in that it enables the child to identify a particular object, to single it out and distinguish it from others. He argues that increasing sophistication in the use of language allows the child to become progressively more independent of the sensory field (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 32).

According to practice, in C. Asri Budiningsih, (2005: 103), that there are two types of mediation:

·         Metacognitive mediation of interpersonal communication to use a tool for self regulation (self regulation), which includes: self-planning, self-monitoring, self checking, and self-Evaluating. Older adults or peers who are competent to use these tools to help children, then children internalize the tools for self regulation.

·         Cognitive mediation, namely the use of cognitive tools (in the form of spontaneous concepts or scientific concepts) to solve the problems associated with certain knowledge (subject-domain problem). More assured they were correct scientific concept of the concept of spontaneous, in which the concept is internalized students (as mediator) in solving the problem. Scientific concepts can be either declarative knowledge (inadequate) and procedural knowledge in the form of method or strategy that is more adequate to solve the problem. Solving process more meaningful for the way he is combine the concepts and procedures through demonstration and practice.

2.2 Current Perspectives on Vygotsky’s Theory

Vygotsky focused more on the processes through which children develop than on the characteristics that children of particular ages are likely to exhibit. Furthermore, his descriptions of such processes were often imprecise and lacking in detail. Nevertheless, many contemporary theorist and practitioners have made considerable use of Vygotsky’s idea.[6]

a.       Guided Participation

Older family members often allow young children to perform household tasks (cooking, cleaning, pinting, and so on) while providing guidance about how to do these tasks appropriately. Teachers, too, often introduce students to adult tasks within a structured and supportive context. For instance, they might ask students to conduct laboratory experiments, write letter to government officials, or search the internet for specific information, while always providing the support the students need to accomplish such tasks successfully. When we assist our student as they perform adultlike activities, we engage them in guided participation in the world of adults (Radziszewa & Rogoff, 1990, 1991) As we guide them, we should also use some of the language that adults frequently use in such context; for example, when students conduct scientific experiments, we should use words such as hypothesis, evidence, and theory as we help them evaluate their procedures and results (Perkins, 1992)           

b.      Scaffolding

Theorists have given considerable thought to the kinds of assistance that can help children complete challenging tasks. The term of scaffolding is often used here. Adults and other more competent individuals provide some form of guidance or structure that enables children to perform tasks in their zone of proximal development. In much the same way, and adult guiding a child through a new task may provide an initial scaffold to support the child’s early efforts. As teacher we can provide variety of support mechanism to help students master tasks; here are some examples:

·         Work with students to develop a plan for dealing with a new task

·         Demonstrate the proper performance of the tasks in a way that students can easily imitate

·         Divide a complex task into several smaller, simple task

·         Provide structure or guidelines about how the task should be accomplished

·         Provide a calculator, computer software or other technology that makes some aspects of their task easier

·         Ask questions that get student thinking in appropriate ways about the task

·         Keep student’s attention focused on the relevant aspects of the task

·         Keep student’s motivation to complete the task

·         Remind students what their goals is in performing the task

·         Give frequent feedback about how students are progressing

As students develop increasing competence, we can gradually withdraw some of these support mechanism, eventually allowing students to perform the task independently. In a manner of speaking, when we remove such scaffolding, we allow and encourage students to stand on their own two feet.      

c.       Apprenticeships

The cognitive apprenticeship approach proposes that learners should engage in meaningful learning and problem solving whilst working with authentic problems. In an apprenticeship a learner works intensively with an expert to accomplish complex tasks that he or she cannot do independently. The expert provides considerable structure and guidance throughout the process, gradually removing scaffolding and giving the learner more responsibility as competence increases. Throughout an apprenticeship a student often learns not only how to perform a task but also how to think about a task; such is sometimes called a cognitive apprenticeship. Although apprenticeships can differ widely from one context to another, they typically have some or all of these features:

·      Modeling. The teacher carries out the task, simultaneously thinking aloud about the process, while the student observes and listens

·      Coaching. As the student performs the task, the teacher gives frequent suggestions, hints, and feedback

·      Scaffolding. The teacher provides various forms of support for the student, perhaps by simplifying the task, breaking it into smaller and more manageable components or providing less complicated equipment

·      Articulation. The student explains what he or she is doing and why, allowing the teacher to examine the student’s knowledge, reasoning, and problem solving strategies

·      Reflection. The teacher asks the student to compare his or her performance with that of experts, or perhaps with an ideal model of how the task should be done

·      Increasing complexity and diversity of tasks. As the student gains greater proficiency, the teacher presents more complex, challenging, and varied tasks to complete

·       Exploration. The teacher encourages the student to frame questions and problems on his or her own and thereby to expand and refine acquired skills

Apprenticeships are clearly labor intensive as such their use in the classroom is not always practical or logistically feasible. Apprenticeships frequently take place in natural settings for example in a studio, workshop, or place of employment and involve real life tasks.    

d.      Peer Interaction

Peer interaction is a term that embodies the concept of students as active learners and participants in all aspects of schooling. It recognizes that students represent a significant resource that often is untapped in schools today. Peer interaction involves a variety of practices and strategies that utilize students as instructors, advocates, and decision makers (Snell & Janey, 2000; Villa & Thousand,1996). The benefits of peer involvement in these areas have been well-documented as follows:

•  The use of peer tutor and partner learning systems have been demonstrated to be a cost-effective way for teachers to increase the amount of individualized instructional attention available to their students (Armstrong, Stahlbrand, Conlon, & Pierson, 1979; Villa & Thousand, 1988).
•  Peers as instructors have been noted to be more effective than adults because they tend to use more age-appropriate vocabulary and examples, are more directive than adults, and are more familiar with potential frustrations (Good & Brophy, 1987; Thousand & McNeil, 1990).
• Effective peer support systems do not occur spontaneously or in isolation. As with any effective strategy, active planning, support, and facilitation are required to maximize this resource.
• The outcomes of successful peer collaboration can be social as well as academic. Peer collaboration builds relationships between students and results in a more caring community of learners.

This section provides an overview of strategies and approaches that can be used to facilitate peer collaboration and promote positive classroom environments.

2.3 The Application of Vygotsky’s Theory

The concept of Vygotsky about reconstruction of knowledge in social setting if it is applied in learning context, a teacher should pay attention about those things. The teacher’s task is twofold. First, in the history lesson, the teacher stimulates the students to connect their knowledge, partly acquired beyond. Secondary education, with the academic concepts to be learned formally at school. And, second, the teacher has to prevent an academic concept from remaining an empty shell for the student, that is, a concept that is not experienced or understood and can only be learned by rote. Experience teaches us that such undigested knowledge is of no use to students and rapidly evaporates. Teachers must learn how to guide their students in sequences of assignments aiming at using everyday knowledge as a means to absorb and own academic concepts. In our teacher education courses, we devote ample discussion time to these tasks of the history teacher. Basic to these tasks is a learning-psychological starting point, combined with our interpretation of historical consciousness. A teacher should provide some kinds and level of helps that can give facility the student in order they can solve some problems that is faced by them. In the word of cognitive psychology, these helps is known as cognitive scaffolding. Those helps can be described in the form of giving examples, guidance or orientation of doing, program or space, the steps or procedures of doing assignment etc.

The guidance or help from the adult person or a friend who more competent and very effective to increase the productivities of learning. Those helps must suitable with the context of sociocultural or student’s characteristic. The guidance by adult person or peer who is more competent benefit to understand the semiotic tool like language, sign and symbols. The student or children experience the internalization process and then these tools has function as mediator for the next psychology processes of the student themselves. So, the forms learning of cooperative-collaborative and the learning of contextual is very appropriate applied.

By the conception of the readiness to learn, so the understanding about the characteristic of student that relate with sociocultural and the first capability as footing in learning is needed more to look the articulation, so it can be produced soft equipment of learning that really challenge but it is still productive and creative

CHAPTER III

CLOSING

3.1  Conclusion

Vygotsky’s basic assumptions are emphasized the importance of society and culture for promoting cognitive growth, his theory is sometimes referred to as the sociocultural perspective. The following major assumptions provide a summary of some perspectives such as: genetic law of development, zone of proximal development, and mediation.

Current perspectives on Vygotsky’s theory focused more on the processes through which children develop than on the characteristics that children of particular ages are likely to exhibit. Furthermore, his descriptions of such processes were often imprecise and lacking in detail. Nevertheless, many contemporary theorist and practitioners have made considerable use of Vygotsky’s idea such as: guided participation, scaffolding, apprenticeships, and peer interaction.

The application of Vygotsky’s theory in social setting if it is applied in learning context, a teacher should pay attention about those things. In every planning and implementation in learning the attention of teacher must be concentrated to the group of student who can not solve some problems of learning by themselves that they who only can solve problems of learning with help. A teacher should provide some kinds and level of helps that can give facility the student in order they can solve some problems that is faced by them.

3.2  Suggestion

From some explanations about Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, the compiler suggests to all of readers in order they can know about the basic assumptions and also the application of Vygotsky’s theory. The compiler also suggests to all of readers in order use this paper as good reference in the future.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kozulin, Alex, 2003, Vygotsky’s Educational Theory in Cultural Context, United States of America: Cambridge University Press

Budiningsih, Asri, 2005, Belajar dan Pembelajaran, Bandung: Rineka Cipta

M. Reynolds W, 2003, Educational Psychology, Canada

 Shayer, Michael, 2003, Not just Piaget; not just Vygotsky, and certainly not Vygotsky as alternative to Piaget, King’s College, University of London

 Daniels Harry, 1996, An Introduction to Vygotsky, USA

Ellis, Ormfod, 2003, Educational Psychology, Colombus

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[1] C.Asri Budiningsih, Belajar dan Pembelajaran, p.100

[2] William M. Reynolds, Educational Psychology, p.152

[3] Michael Shayer, Not just Piaget; not just Vygotsky, and certainly not Vygotsky as alternative to Piaget, p.470

[4] Alex Kozulin, Vygotsky’s Educational Theory in Cultural Context, p.41

[5] Harry Daniels, An Introduction to Vygotsky, p.30

[6] Jeanne Ellis Ormfod, Educational Psychology, p.39

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Pak cecep adalah salah satu dosen yang telah membimbing kami selama 4 semester. Beliau selalu memberi kami inspirasi bahwa kemampuan bahasa Inggris harus selalu diasah dan menjadi kebiasaan. Meskipun kita bukan jurusan bahasa inggris tapi kita harus mampu menjawab tantangan global. Saat ini beliau akan berangkat ke India, teman-teman bilang beliau mau ketemu Syahrukh Khan, hehehehe. Sekembalinya beliau dari India semoga ada informasi dan pengalaman yang dapat ditularkan kepada kami

Pergi ke Sekolah

Pengalaman yang aneh hari ini. Aku dan teman-teman mau pergi observasi ke MTS 1 Malang, kami tidak punya persiapan apa-apa. Lagipula juga tidak tahu prosedur di MTS itu bagaimana. Dengan penuh rasa percaya diri kami masuk saja ke bagian administrasi. Tidak tahunya sampai sana bagian administrasi bilang kita tidak bisa observasi di sekolah itu. Aduuuuh, capek deh. Gak bawa hasil apa-apa. Tapi ya sudahlah kita kembali dengan lapang dada. Akhirnya kami semua kumpul di masjid deket MAN 3, mau menyusun strategi lagi buat cari sekolah yang bisa diobservasi.

Minta Izin Observasi

Hari ini anak-anak kelas pada ngurus surat izin observasi ke fakultas. Katanya sih buat pengantar waktu mau masuk ke sekolah yang diobservasi. Ternyata ribet juga. Anak-anak mondar-mandir ke sana ke mari cari tanda tangan. Setelah dapat tanda tangan malah acaranya narsis bersama, hehehehe

Manasik Haji UIN 2011

Hari ini di kampusku diadakan kegiatan manasik haji. Ini tahun ketiga aku mengikuti kegiatan ini di kampusku yang memang diadakan menjelang hari raya Idhul Adha. Acara rutinan ini wajib diikuti oleh seluruh penghuni Ma'had Sunan Ampel Al-Ali. Hmmmm, semoga nantinya aku benar-benar memenuhi panggilan Allah untuk menunaikan ibadah haji di tanah suci. Amin
Ni fotoku ma temen-temen sebelum acara..